Physical Literacy: Breaking Down Silos Between Sectors

Previously published in Volume 82, Issue 1

Abstract
This article discusses the promotion of physical literacy as a possible solution to the current state of physical inactivity among Canadian children and youth. Effective physical literacy promotion is conceptualized as a collaborative approach among sport, education, recreation and health sectors and a case study example from Kingston, Ontario highlights specific examples of a multi-sector approach to physical literacy. A brief overview of sector specific resources and links is also provided (with websites and access information included) to aid practitioners in accessing information discussed.

Participation in regular physical activity is crucial to the healthy growth and development of children and youth as well as to the prevention of certain metabolic and cardiovascular risk factors (Janssen and LeBlanc, 2010). Despite all of the well-known benefits, the ubiquitous nature of screen time activities and high levels of inactivity are quickly becoming an alarming trend among Canadian children and youth. Suboptimal sport and physical activity experiences may be contributing to these high levels of inactivity and disengagement in sport. Negative experiences in these contexts may be associated with the absence of fundamental movement skills developed in early childhood, as well as a lack of knowledge surrounding the overall importance of leading a physically active lifestyle (Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, Okely, 2010). Fundamental movement skills can be defined as “a common motor activity (e.g. walk, run, jump, throw) with specific movement patterns. It is also believed that these basic skills [. . .] form the foundation for more advanced and specific movement activities” (Gabbard, 1992, p.265).

The benefits obtained through regular participation in physical activity are essential at every age, and appear to be especially critical for healthy growth and development in the foundational years (Hills, Dengel, Lubans, 2014; Caine and Maffulli, 2005). Recognizing the importance of measuring current physical activity levels among Canadian children to gauge their future health status, ParticipACTION produces an annual report card (previously known as the Active Healthy Kids Canada Report Card), which highlights the most recent findings regarding physical activity among children and youth. The 2015 report card revealed an overall physical activity grade of D, highlighting that most children and youth are not meeting the Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines (Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology, 2012) of at least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous daily physical activity. Specifically, a mere 7% of 5 to 11 year old children, and 4% of 12 to 17 year old youth meet these recommendations (Colley et al., 2011). This is an alarming statistic that needs to be addressed, especially considering the sedentary lifestyles that are prevalent in today’s society.

This article discusses the promotion of physical literacy as a possible solution to the current state of physical inactivity among Canadian children and youth. Effective physical literacy promotion is conceptualized as a collaborative approach among sport, education, recreation and health sectors and a case study example from Kingston, Ontario highlights specific examples of a multi-sector approach to physical literacy. A brief overview of sector specific resources and links is also provided (with websites and access information included) to aid practitioners in accessing information discussed.

Disengagement from physical activity
Children report a lack of fundamental skills as one of the major reasons they drop out of physical activity and sport. A lack of success, competing agendas, too much pressure, and a decline in social connection are other reasons discussed for discontinued involvement in sport and physical activity (Brown, 1985; Burton & Marten, 1986; Gould, Feltz, Horn & Weiss, 1982 & Klint, Weiss & Maureen, 1986). Additionally, a lack of perceived confidence may impact children and youth withdrawal from sport and activity. Perceived competence, or having the sense that one has the ability to master a skill or task, predicts an individual’s likelihood of continuing to show interest in an activity and ultimately lifelong participation in an activity or sport (Cervello, Escarti, Guzman, 2007). Research has shown that without the development of adequate competence and skills, many children and youth may distance themselves from physical activity and sport, and ultimately turn to more inactive and subsequently unhealthy behaviours during their leisure time (Canadian Sport for Life, 2010).

Physical literacy as a solution
A potential first step to address inadequate physical activity involvement in Canadian children and youth is fostering a foundation of physical literacy during the formative years. Physical literacy can provide children with the competence and confidence to participate in a wide array of physical activities, in a variety of environments, which can ultimately develop the whole person and enable participation in lifelong physical activity (Whitehead, 2001). The development of physical literacy is conceptualised as a holistic approach in which an individual’s quality of life could be enhanced (Whitehead, 2001). The holistic approach to physical literacy includes the development of motivation, confidence, knowledge, and understanding towards physical activity, which is as important as the development of physical competence for movement skills (Hardman, 2011). Each of these attributes needs to be nurtured, taught, developed and practiced during the early years of child growth and development (Hardman, 2011).

Defining and assessing physical literacy
Physical literacy appeared as an indicator for the first time in the 2015 ParticipACTION report card, nine years after the first Physical Activity Report card was first launched in 2005. Some of the research gaps in this area, as noted by the report card at the time, were the lack of a common definition of physical literacy across diverse sectors, as well as a lack of instruments to assess physical literacy (ParticipACTION, 2015). For example, varying definitions of physical literacy were being used, many of which were specific to the sector in which physical literacy initiatives were being implemented. In 2014, representatives from various organizations collaborated with the International Physical Literacy Association to develop a definition of physical literacy to be utilized by all. The following is the agreed upon definition for physical literacy: (it is) “the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life.” This definition was released in a 2015 consensus statement that highlighted the need and desire for a common definition and understanding of physical literacy in Canada. (For more information see: http://www.physicalliteracy.ca/sites/default/files/Consensus-Handout-EN-WEB_1.pdf)

Evaluation tools for various aspects of physical literacy also have been recently developed: Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL) developed by the Healthy Active Living and Obesity Research Group (HALO) at the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario (https://www.capl-ecsfp.ca); Passport for Life created by PHE Canada (http://passportforlife.ca); Physical Literacy Assessment for Youth (PLAY) tools developed by Canadian Sport for Life (http://play.physicalliteracy.ca); and the Fundamental Movement Skill (FMS) Assessment Tool developed by the 60 Minutes Kids Club (http://60minkidsclub.org/about/teachers).

Physical literacy across sectors
Motor development of children and youth is not innate, therefore quality opportunities need to be offered for these movement abilities to be acquired (Haywood & Getchell, 2014). Motor skills are an integral aspect of the relationship among the physical, cognitive and affective domains of the individual developing physical literacy (Wall & Murray, 1994). Although some children do develop and master physical skills on their own through a trial and error effort, the task of developing physically literate children belongs to all of those who interact with children on a regular basis (Canadian Sport for Life, 2010). Therefore, opportunities need to be available in a wide range of settings and across various sectors (e.g. sport, education, recreation, and health) in which the child interacts regularly.

Physical literacy is being adopted as a term to unite sectors that share the goal of increasing children and youth physical activity levels (Mandigo, Francis, Lodewyk, & Lopez, 2009). Coaches, teachers, recreation leaders, health care providers and parents are all trying to address the physical inactivity crisis, which is threatening the future health of Canadians. Physical literacy has emerged as a common ground upon which a unified, multi-sector approach can be built.

Breaking down silos
Kretchmar’s (2008) analogy of working in silos both celebrates and critiques the specialization and intradisciplinary approaches commonly adopted within the applied health sciences field. For example, building new knowledge is important in any field and as Kretchmar (2008) indicates, “silos help to define, orient, provide focus and depth and produce the quality that goes with it” (p.3). However, depth and focus that is only beneficial to one area can impair progress in other areas and lead to tunnel vision. The notion of subdisciplinary independence or specialization is a paradigm that is increasingly under attack. Silos or specialization “present practical problems related to fractionation, poor communication and a lack of mutual respect” (Kretchmar, 2008, p.3). By contrast, interdisciplinarity allows for multiple viewpoints and ideas to be exchanged with the aim of effectively addressing a topic of common interest. Embracing the collaboration of multiple disciplines diminishes myopathy and enhances the likelihood of innovation (Kretchmar, 2008).

Applied multidisciplinarity: Canadian Sport for Life
One of the resources developed to assist communities and sectors in nurturing physically literate children is “Becoming a Canadian Sport for Life Community.” A Canadian Sport for Life (CS4L) community links and aligns programming of the education, health, sport and recreation sectors while infusing the concepts of the CS4L movement. There is a focus on creating a paradigm shift in the way sport and physical activity is planned, delivered and accepted within communities. The CS4L framework provides guidelines to ensure that introductory experiences in sport and physical activity are positive for children and foster the development of physical literacy and a continual participation in physical activity (Shelton & Harber, 2013). The various sectors endorsing CS4L have made efforts to push the physical literacy movement forward. The following sections outline some of the ways in which sport, education, recreation, and health sectors have integrated physical literacy into their physical activity decisions and structures. The examples provided are by no means an exhaustive list of what sectors are doing, but highlight some of the emerging approaches and resources to enhancing physical literacy in children and youth.

Sport
It has been recognized that many children and youth joining sport programs lack the fundamental movement skills to participate in physical activity (Canadian Sport for Life, 2010). As a result, CS4L has been a leading organization in increasing awareness of physical literacy as well as in developing information and guides for people within the sport sector. For example, introductory videos have been developed that assist people with developing and delivering a quality physical literacy experience in practice or programs. The main focus of CS4L is to develop physical literacy in alignment with the first three stages of the Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model. The LTAD model recognizes the importance of physical literacy in developing a foundation to be active for life or competitive for life; while providing physical activity opportunities for every age based upon a developmental progression. The model implies that regardless of an individual’s goal for participating in physical activity and sport (e.g. recreation, competition, fitness levels or daily living activities,), the building blocks remain the same for all.

Education
Education in Ontario has recently included physical literacy as an overall outcome and goal of its 2015 Health and Physical Education curriculum at both the elementary and secondary levels. During the development of the most recently revised curriculum, stakeholders recognized that schools are a key setting in which to teach physical literacy skills given that children spend a majority of their waking hours at school and that a majority of children can be reached at school (Mandigo, 2010).

In this context, physical literacy can be considered to be an outcome of physical education. Two organizations specifically associated with supporting the health and physical education curriculum in Ontario include the Ontario Physical and Health Education Association (Ophea) and Physical and Health Education Canada (PHE Canada), which have developed a variety of resources to assist educators in developing physical literacy. These resources include: short video clips explaining the concept of physical literacy (https://www.ophea.net/product/hands-health-and-physical-literacy#.Vt4bc15LVQU), as well as highlighting fundamental movement skills by the early, intermediate and mature mover (http://www.phecanada.ca/resources/fms-videos); a poster series of basic skills, games strategies and tactics (http://teachingtools.ophea.net/supplements/learn-move); as well as resource booklets designed to aid in delivery (http://www.phecanada.ca/resources/move-think-learn). Ophea has worked directly with the Ministry of Education in Ontario to develop resources that align with the curriculum to ensure that educators have sufficient support to implement the curriculum. With over 100 lesson plans for grades 1 to 8, school boards can purchase a subscription to grant access to these lesson plans, which support teachers during physical education class (http://teachingtools.ophea.net/lesson-plans/hpe). Therefore it is the hope that each student will receive proper support at school during physical education class to develop a foundation for building physical literacy. The education sector is a prime setting for this development, as it is the only place guaranteed to interact with every child.

Recreation
The recreation sector offers children and youth an opportunity to take part in a wide variety of activities. Low-organizational and lead-up games are foundational to these programs, making them instrumental to the development of physical literacy. One of the ways in which recreation is aiming to ensure first experiences in physical activity are positive is through the use of HIGH FIVE, which is a quality standard for recreation. Program accreditation through HIGH FIVE is aimed at enhancing recreation program quality and experiences. HIGH FIVE was developed by Parks and Recreation Ontario (PRO), which is an association aimed at advancing the benefits and quality of recreation through evidence-based practices, resources and partnerships. PRO supports the development of physical literacy by producing webinars and workshops.

The YMCA has also taken steps to include physical literacy into their programming across Canada. The YMCA Canada Program Manager is actively working to integrate these concepts into programming practices and policies across the country. For example, the YMCA of Northern Alberta has implemented physical literacy concepts into their summer camp programs and activities, and use the LTAD Model in conjunction with program planning and delivery (See: http://www.northernalberta.ymca.ca/Portals/0/daycamps/PhysicalLiteracy2015.pdf).

Lastly, some recreation program names are being tailored to the stages of the LTAD Model to advertise that their programming matches these foundational principles. For example, Queen’s University Athletics and Recreation Department in Kingston, Ontario offers as part of their camp selection, Active FUNdamental Camp, which aims to develop basic and fundamental movements in a non-competitive environment. Additionally, the YMCA of Niagara titles a physical activity program for children ages 3 to 5, Active Kids, to align with the first stage of the LTAD model, Active Start. This program focuses on the development of physical literacy, including programming aimed at fundamental movement skills.

Health
The promotion of physical activity and physical literacy can be considered preventative health care; programs and initiatives that are put in place to aid Canadians to develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes to be active for life can help our population to stay healthier (Canadian Sport for Life, 2016). Health promotion programs and initiatives such as Ever Active Schools in Alberta or ParticipACTION raise public awareness and provide supporting resources to develop physical literacy and an appreciation for an active lifestyle. Additionally, funding dollars from the provincial government supports initiatives and systems aiding to keep people healthy. It is important to note that while Ever Active Schools is supported by the health sector, it is actually a multi-sectoral initiative with efforts and funding coming from health, education and recreation. This collaboration allows for numerous perspectives and suggestions to be exchanged, which is a benefit of interdisciplinary efforts outlined earlier by Kretchmar (2008).

Another example of possible funding is the grant program titled the Ontario Sport and Recreation Communities Fund created in 2013. The financial support comes from the Ontario Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Sport to aid Ontarians in being more physically active. This funding increases opportunities for physical activity and sport and embed physical literacy as a foundation for lifelong engagement (For more information visit: http://www.grants.gov.on.ca/GrantsPortal/en/OntarioGrants/GrantOpportunities/PRDR006918)

Parents and guardians
Parents and guardians, while not truly identifiable as a sector, can impact a child’s physical literacy journey. Parents have been identified as ‘gate keepers’ to children’s physical activity and experiences during family time (Rhodes, Naylor & McKay, 2010; Gustafson & Rhodes, 2006). Parents play a vital role in the facilitation of their child’s physical activity and there are numerous factors which can impact the opportunity and promotion of participating; for example, encouragement and positive beliefs, paying for fees and equipment, attending practices and games, helping with skill development, and providing transportation (Weiss & Hayashi, 1995)

Moreover, the activity habits of a parent influences a child’s level of engagement. Children often exhibit physical activity patterns similar to their parents, whether being active or inactive. (Freedson & Evenson, 1991). Socio-economic status (SES) can also impact activity levels. Children and youth residing in a lower SES households exhibit lower physical activity rates compared to their higher SES counterparts. Parental involvement and encouragement also tends to be less likely in children and youth of low SES (Humbert, 2006).

Parents can provide an environment that exposes their child to activity opportunities for practicing different motor activities and improving skills (O’Dywer, Fairclough, Knowles & Stratton, 2012). In addition to structuring and encouraging physical activity opportunities at home, parents can also support their child’s development of physical literacy by actively seeking out recreation and sport programs that align with physical literacy concepts and advocating for the inclusion of physical literacy within school physical education programs. Active for Life, a not-for-profit social enterprise aimed at supporting parents in understanding the importance of physical literacy, in association with CS4L, created a tool to aid parents/guardians in this process. To view this resource, visit: http://canadiansportforlife.ca/sites/default/files/resources/Ask_Schools_%26_Coaches.pdf

Active for Life has also developed tools and resources to assist in educating parents about physical literacy. Parents may or may not be familiar with the term physical literacy since it is relatively new outside the realm of academia. To access these tools, visit: http://activeforlife.com/educating-parents-physical-literacy/. Furthermore, parents may be an ideal target population for ‘physical re-education’, an emerging term describing the need to help parents learn how to become physically literate themselves. This re-education in turn could assist parents in encouraging more activity and proper progressive development of skills in their own children.

It can be theorized that a consistent approach across sectors and at home can strengthen the physical activity community as well as community members engaging in activities and programs. For example, a child taking part in various programs across sectors that all have adopted a physical literacy approach (e.g. physical education class, basketball program at the local recreation centre and engaging in physical literacy building activities at home), would be receiving programming with a consistent approach and messaging framework, thereby reinforcing physical literacy learnings across sectors and domains. The next section presents an example of one community’s efforts to develop cross-sector alignment around the concept of physical literacy.

Case study example: CS4L Kingston
The City of Kingston and local community organizations received funding in 2013 – 2015 from the Ontario Sport and Recreation Communities Fund to promote physical literacy in Kingston, Ontario. The leadership team of this project was multi-sector and included representation from the school board, public health, municipal recreation, technical director of a sports club, research and evaluation, cross-sector involvement and a community member. The objective of this funding and project plan was to develop Kingston into a CS4L community. Some of the key initiatives resulting from this funding were a Town Hall event, PLAY Kits, Kingston Gets Active Month and a PLAY for Life Summit. Each initiative is described below.

Town hall
In the short term, the Town Hall event aimed to raise awareness of physical literacy among sport, education, recreation and health providers as well as among citizens at large. The long-term goal of the event was to bring together community partners and organizations to create a sustainable approach to quality sport, physical activity, recreation and education programming in Kingston. Launching a project with a community-wide event to raise awareness of an issue among coalition members, organizations and citizens is an effective starting point for a community intervention (Einsenmann et al., 2008). The format for the Town Hall event involved local physical literacy champions from each sector presenting short addresses with relevant videos on the topic; the event lasted approximately three hours. Before and after the Town Hall event, 87 participants completed a questionnaire about their overall knowledge of physical literacy, their ability to define and provide an example of a fundamental movement skill, and an example of how to integrate physical literacy in their program. A paired samples test was conducted to compare pre and post measures. Results indicated a significant increase (p<.001) in physical literacy between time points (results were collected via Kingston Gets Active and CS4L Kingston in 2013; refer to acknowledgements), indicating that the event was effective in raising awareness and increasing knowledge about physical literacy among attendees.

PLAY kits
PLAY Kits were developed to provide a resource for parents/guardians to increase opportunities for their child/children to be physically active at home and to assist in the development of fundamental skills, and gain the knowledge and attitude to become active for life. The resource was targeted towards parents, and as mentioned earlier, parents play a vast role in the development of children’s physical activity levels and movement capabilities (O’Dywer, Fairclough, Knowles & Stratton, 2012). Furthermore, access to and availability of resources can impede or facilitate engagement in physical activity. Infrastructure such as city or school parks, sport facilities, fitness clubs, community centres and walking or biking trails are resources to elicit the availability of physical activity opportunities. Neighbourhoods of low SES to medium SES tend to have significantly fewer resources compared to high SES areas (Estabrooks, Lee & Gyurcsik, 2003). Access to resources can be connected to the cost associated with programs and facilities. Free-for-use programs assist in removing the cost barrier to allow access to all. These kits are placed in various locations around the community and can be borrowed at no cost to the individual and/or family.

Three different kits were developed based on years of age and stages of development: a Starter Kit (3-5 years), a Family Kit (6-12 years) and an Active for Life Kit (all ages) to develop and support physical literacy for continual participation in physical activity. The kits include the following materials: multi-purpose equipment, a resource describing developmentally appropriate activities to develop fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills, literature explaining physical literacy, benefits and guidelines for physical activity, a takeaway page of key points and some of the activities for continued implementation after the kit is returned and a physical activity tracker/planner for the fridge.

Kingston Gets Active Month
Kingston Gets Active Month allows all citizens the opportunity to participate in free recreation, sport and workshop activities offered by local organizations and businesses. Kingston Gets Active Month happens every September and April; a wide range of physical activity, sport, and recreation opportunities are available to allow citizens to sample and experience new activities and hopefully develop a passion for physical activity. Sampling is characterized by engaging and trying various activities as opposed to focusing or specializing on one specific sport or physical activity. Sampling numerous sports and physical activities in childhood is associated with lifelong engagement is physical activity. Sampling also tends to provide more enjoyable early experiences (Coté, Horton, MacDonald & Wilkes, 2009).

In 2014, Kingston Gets Active Month included 26 different organizations that offered 68 different activities. Tracking by each participating organization (via attendance logs) revealed that approximately 1700 participants took advantage of these opportunities (results were collected via Kingston Gets Active and CS4L Kingston in 2014; refer to acknowledgements)

PLAY for Life summit
A one-day summit titled “PLAY for Life” was a cross-sector event offering active and informational sessions delivered by content experts, which focused on physical literacy. This event offered a professional learning opportunity for participants. Initial and ongoing training is essential within career development, as professionals require more than introductory coaching to become experts, as well as support with the release of new material and initiatives (Duncombe & Armour, 2004). A highlight of some of the session topics included: Concussion Education, Physical Literacy Evaluation (PLAY Tools and Program Audit), Teaching Games for Understanding, and Adapted Physical Activity. The planning committee for this event had cross-sectoral representation to ensure the specific needs of each division would be met. Moreover, this multi-sector committee fostered relationships and discussion between leaders in diverse areas.

There were 316 attendees at the event with representation from all sectors; sport (22), recreation (33), education (103), health (45) as well as a large number of post-secondary students (11). Geographically, 75% of participants were local to Kingston and 25% came from 40 other Ontario municipalities (results were collected via Kingston Gets Active and CS4L Kingston in 2014; refer to acknowledgements). A questionnaire anchored 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used to assess participant feedback on overall increase in knowledge and awareness, intention to implement physical literacy related learnings within the workplace/sector, as well as workshop specific relevance, engagement and quality. The questionnaire elicited an evaluation response rate of 37% (n=117). Frequencies were calculated and translated into percentages to reveal that participant satisfaction regarding the Summit was high with a range of 72.7% to 98.5% ratings in the agree or strongly agree categories across all questionnaire items (results were collected via Kingston Gets Active and CS4L Kingston in 2014; refer to acknowledgements). Therefore, results indicate that the Summit was an effective event to improve knowledge of physical literacy relevant to the local context of Kingston, Ontario.

Conclusion
Physical literacy has gained much attention recently as a strategy to enhance physical activity experiences and to build skills, knowledge, and attitudes to remain active for life. Each sector can play a role in achieving this goal, and having a unified focus among those dedicated to physical activity, recreation and sport promotion is important for moving the physical literacy agenda forward. Collaboration among sectors can reduce competition for funds and increase the sharing of resources; it can expand planning and programming from one viewpoint to a more comprehensive and holistic approach that will resonate with diverse population groups (Butterfoss, Goodman, & Wandersman, 1993). This article highlights one example of a multi-sector approach to integrating physical literacy into a physical activity community, more attention and focus by community leaders as well as researchers is warranted to identify promising practices. Given the focus of the identified Kingston initiatives was to create understanding and awareness of the term physical literacy, next steps for this collaboration could focus on building community capacity and support for sector-specific implementation. A well respected leader in the physical literacy movement, Dr. James Mandigo, states ‘if the term physical literacy were to die tomorrow – it’s greatest legacy would be that it brought people together.” (J. Mandigo, personal communication, August 11, 2015).

Acknowledgements
The research in the CS4L Kingston case study was funded by The Province of Ontario, Ministry of Tourism, Culture, and Sport. We would also like to thank our colleagues from Kingston Gets Active and CS4L Kingston for their leadership in the organization and delivery of these initiatives.

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